There are a number of approaches
that we can take to what we might call outlining the case for the reality of
rebirth. One line which we might take would be to recall that in almost all the
major cultures of the world, at one time or another, there had been a strong
belief in the reality of rebirth. This is particularly true in India where the
idea of rebirth can be traced back to the very earliest period of Indian
civilization where all the major Indian religions, be they theism or atheism,
be they schools of Hinduism or non-Hindu doctrines like Jainism,
believe in the reality of rebirth. Similarly, in other cultures there has been
a belief in rebirth, as for instance even in the Mediterranean world, there is
a lot of evidence that belief in rebirth was quite common before and during the
first few centuries of the Common Era. So the belief in rebirth has been an
important part of the human way of thinking about one’s situation.
Specifically, within the Buddhist
tradition, we have the testimony of the Buddha on the matter of rebirth. On the
night of His enlightenment, the Buddha acquired three varieties of knowledge
and the first of these was the detailed knowledge of His past lives. He was
able to recollect the conditions in which He had been born in His past lives.
He was able to remember what His names had been, what His occupations had been
and so on. Besides the Buddha’s testimony, His prominent disciples were also
able to recollect their past lives. Ananda, for instance, acquired the ability
to recollect his past life soon after his ordination.
Similarly, throughout the history
of Buddhism, saints, scholars and meditators have been able to recollect their
past lives.
Nonetheless, neither of these two
arguments for rebirth can be expected to be completely convincing in a
scientific and rational environment. So perhaps we need to look a bit closer to
home so to speak, and here we get
help from a very unexpected direction. Most of us may be aware that
in the past twenty or thirty years there have been a huge amount of scientific
investigations of the question of rebirth and these investigations have been
pursued by psychologists and parapsychologists. Gradually through these
investigations, we have built up a very convincing case for the reality of
rebirth, a case which is developed along scientific lines. There have been many
books published in which the details of these investigations have been described
and discussed. One scholar who has been particularly active in this area in
recent years is Professor Ian Stevenson of the University of Virginia, USA. He
has published findings on more than twenty cases of rebirth. Some of us may be
familiar with the case of the woman who was able to recall her past life more
than a hundred years before as Bridey Murphy in a foreign land which she had
never visited in her present life. I am not going to go through these specific
cases in detail because if one is interested in this scientific evidence for
rebirth one can read about it for oneself. Nonetheless, I think we are now at a
point where even the most skeptical of us will have to admit that there is a
lot of circumstantial evidence in favour of the reality of rebirth.
But in making the case for rebirth,
we can look even closer to our own experience, and here we need to recall and
examine it in the true Buddhist way to see what meaning we can distil from our
own experience. All of us in this room have our own particular capabilities,
our own particular likes and dislikes, and I think it is fair to ask whether
these are all merely the result of chance. For instance, some of us are more
capable at sport than others, some of us have a talent for mathematics, others
have a talent for music, some of us like swimming, others are afraid of water.
Are all these differences in our abilities and attitudes merely the result of
chance? There are incredible peculiarities in the nature of our experiences.
Let me take my own case. I was born in a Roman Catholic family in the United
States. There was absolutely nothing in my early background to indicate that by
the age of twenty I would have travelled to India and that I would spend the
next fourteen years of my life predominantly in Asia, and that I would become
deeply involved in Buddhist studies.
Then, too, there are those
situations in which we sometimes feel a strong presentiment that we have been
in a particular place before although we have not visited this place in our
present life. Or, sometimes we feel that we have known someone before.
Sometimes we meet a person and within a very short space of time we feel that
we have known that person thoroughly. Alternatively, sometimes we have known a
person for years and yet we are not close to that person. These experiences of
feeling that we have been to a place before or have known a person before are
so common and universal even in a culture which knows almost nothing of
rebirth. There is a particular phrase for this experience, the French words
"deja vu" which mean "already seen or experienced". If we
are not dogmatic, when we add up all the evidence of rebirth - the persistent
belief in rebirth in many cultures in many different times throughout history,
the Buddha’s own testimony, the testimony of His prominent disciples, the
evidence presented by scientific investigations, and our own personal
intimations that we have been here before - we have to admit that there is at
least a good possibility that rebirth is a reality.
In Buddhism, rebirth is part of the
continuous process of change. In fact, we are not only reborn at the time of
death, we are born and reborn at every moment. This too, like many other
Buddhist teachings, is easily verifiable by reference to our own experience and
by reference to the teachings of science. For instance, the majority of the
cells in the human body die and are replaced many times during the course of
one’s life. Even those few cells which last one’s entire life undergo constant
internal changes. This is part of the process of birth, death and rebirth. If
we look at the mind too, we find that mental states of worry, happiness and so
forth are changing every moment. They die and are replaced by new states. So
whether we look at the body or the mind, our experience is characterized by
continuous birth, death and rebirth.
In Buddhism, it is taught that there
are various realms, spheres or dimensions of existence. There are thirty-one
planes of existence listed, but for our purposes, we are going to utilize a simpler
scheme which enumerates six realms of existence. In general, the six realms may
be divided into two groups, one of which is relatively fortunate and the other
relatively miserable. The first group includes three of the six realms and they
are the realm of the gods, the realm of the demigods and the realm of human
beings. Rebirth in these fortunate realms is the result of wholesome karma. The
second group includes the three realms that are considered relatively
miserable. They are sometimes called the realms of woe, and they are the realm
of animals, the realm of hungry ghosts and the realm of hell beings. Rebirth in
these states of woe is the result of unwholesome karma.
Let us look at each of these realms
individually and starting from the realm at the bottom, let us look at the
realm of the hell beings (Niraya). There are various hells in Buddhism, and
they are principally eight hot hells and eight cold hells. In the hells, beings
suffer incalculable and inexpressible pain. It is said that the suffering
experienced as a result of being pierced by three hundred spears in a single
day in this life is only a minute fraction of the suffering experienced in
hell. The cause of rebirth in hell is continuous, habitual violent actions -
habitual killing, cruelty and so forth, actions that are borne of ill-will.
Beings born in the hells suffer the pain of hell until their unwholesome karma
is exhausted. This is important because we must note that in Buddhism no one
suffers eternal damnation. When their unwholesome karma is exhausted, beings in
hell are reborn in a more fortunate realm of existence.
The next realm is the realm of the
hungry ghosts (Pretas). Beings in this realm suffer chiefly from hunger and
thirst, and from heat and cold. They are completely bereft of the objects of
their desire. It is said that when the hungry ghosts perceive a mountain of
rice or a river of fresh water, and rush towards that vision, they find the
mountain of rice is only a heap of pebbles, and the river of fresh water only a
ribbon of blue slate. Similarly, it is said that in the summer even the moon is
hot, while in the winter even the sun is cold for them. The foremost cause of
rebirth as a hungry ghost is avarice and miserliness borne of greed. As with
the hells, the beings in this realm are not condemned to eternal existence in
the form of hungry ghosts, for when their unwholesome karma is exhausted, they
will be reborn in a higher realm.
In the next realm which is the realm
of animals (Tiryak), the living beings suffer from a variety of unhappy
circumstances. They suffer from the fear and pain that is the result of
constantly killing and eating one another. They suffer from the depredations of
man who kills them for food or for their hides, horns or teeth. Even if they
are not killed, domestic animals are forced to work for man and are driven on
by hooks and whips. All these are a source of suffering. The principal cause of
rebirth as an animal is ignorance. In other words, the blind, heedless pursuit
of one’s animal-like desires, the preoccupation with eating, sleeping and
sexual desire, and the disregard of developing one’s mind to the practice of
virtue and so forth lead one to be reborn as an animal.
Now when I say for instance that
habitual killing is the cause of rebirth in the hells, or that greed is the
cause of rebirth in the realm of the hungry ghosts, or that ignorance is the
cause of rebirth in the realm of animals, it does not mean that a specific
hateful, greedy or ignorant action will result in rebirth amongst the
appropriate class of beings - the hells, the realms of hungry ghosts or the
realm of animals. What it does mean is that there is a relationship between
hatred and rebirth in the hells, and between greed and rebirth in the realm of
hungry ghosts, and between ignorance and rebirth in the realm of the animals.
If unimpeded, if unbalanced by other virtuous actions, such actions if habitual
are likely to result in rebirth in these three states of woe.
I am going to skip the realm of
human beings for the moment and go on to the realm of demigods (Asuras). The
Asuras are more powerful physically and are more intelligent mentally than
human beings. Yet they suffer because of jealousy and conflict. Mythologically,
it is said that the Asuras and the gods share a celestial tree. While the gods
enjoy the fruits of this celestial tree, the Asuras are custodians of the roots
of the tree. The Asuras are envious of the gods and constantly attempt to take
the fruits of the tree from the gods. As a result of this, they fight with the
gods, and are defeated by the gods and suffer greatly as a consequence. Because
of this constant jealousy, envy and conflict, existence amongst the Asuras is
unhappy and unfortunate. As with the other realms, there is a cause of rebirth
amongst the demigods. On the positive side, the cause is generosity. On the
negative side, the causes are anger, envy and jealousy.
The sixth realm, the realm of the
gods (Devas) is the happiest amongst the six realms. As a result of having done
wholesome actions, of having observed the moral precepts and having practised
meditation, living beings are reborn amongst the gods where they enjoy sensual
pleasure or spiritual pleasure, or tranquillity depending upon the level within
the realm of the gods in which they are born. Nonetheless, the realm of the
gods is not to be desired because the happiness of the gods is impermanent. No
matter how much they may enjoy their existence as a god, when the force of
their karma is exhausted, when the merits of their good conduct and the power
of their experience in meditation are exhausted, the gods fall from heaven and
are reborn in another realm. At this moment, at the moment of their death, it
is said that the gods suffer even more mental anguish than the physical pain
suffered by beings in the other realms. The negative factor associated with
birth in the realm of the gods is pride.
So here, as you can see, we have an
affliction or defilement associated with the five realms - hell beings, hungry
ghosts, animals, demigods and the gods, and they are ill-will, desire,
ignorance, jealousy and pride. Birth in any of these five realms is
undesirable. Birth in the three lower realms is undesirable for obvious
reasons, because of the intense suffering and because of the total ignorance of
the beings who inhabit these realms. Even rebirth in the realms of the demigods
and the gods too is undesirable. This is because, although one experiences a
certain degree of happiness and power, existence amongst the demigods and gods
is impermanent. Besides, because of the distractions and pleasures in these
realms, beings there never think of looking for a way out of the cycle of birth
and death. This is why it is said that of the six realms, the most fortunate,
opportune and favored is the human realm. This is why I have left the human
realm to the last.
The human realm (Manushya) is the
most favoured of the six realms because as a human being one has the motivation
and the opportunity to practise the Dharma and to achieve enlightenment. One
has this motivation and opportunity because the conditions conducive to
practising the path are present. In the human realm, one experiences both
happiness and suffering. The suffering in this realm, though terrible, is not
so great as the suffering in the three realms of woe. The pleasure and
happiness experienced in the human realm is not so great as the pleasure and
happiness experienced in the heavens. As a result, human beings are neither
blinded by the intense happiness experienced by the beings in the heavens, nor
distracted by the unbearable suffering that beings in the hells experience.
Again, unlike the animals, human beings possess sufficient intelligence to
recognize the necessity to look for a means to achieve the total end of
suffering.
Human birth is difficult to gain
from a number of points of view. First of all, it is difficult to gain from the
point of view of its cause. Good conduct is the foremost cause of rebirth as a
human being, but how rare is truly good conduct. Again, human birth is difficult
to gain from the point of view of number, for human beings are only a small
fraction of the living beings who inhabit the six realms. Moreover it is not
enough simply to be born as a human being because there are countless human
beings who do not have the opportunity to practise the Dharma. It is therefore
not only necessary to be born as a human being, it is also necessary to have
the opportunity to practise the Dharma, to develop one’s qualities of morality,
mental development and wisdom.
The Buddha spoke about the rarity
and the precious nature of opportune birth amongst human beings. He used a
simile to illustrate this point. Suppose the whole world were a vast ocean, and
on the surface of this ocean there were a yoke floating about, blown about by
the wind, and suppose at the bottom of the ocean there lived a blind tortoise
which came to the surface of the ocean once every hundred years. Just as
difficult as it would be for that tortoise to place its neck through the
opening in that yoke floating about in the ocean, just so difficult is it to
attain opportune birth as a human being. Elsewhere, it is said that just as if
one were to throw a handful of dried peas against a stone wall, and just as if
one of these peas were to stick in a crack in the wall, so to be born as a
human being with the opportunity to practise the Dharma is similarly difficult.
It is foolish to waste human
existence along with the conducive conditions that we enjoy in free societies,
the opportunity that we have to practise the Dharma. It is extremely important
that having this opportunity we make use of it. If we fail to practise the
Dharma in this life, there is no way of knowing where in the six realms we will
be reborn, and when we shall have such a chance again. We must strive to free
ourselves from the cycle of rebirth because failing to do so means that we will
continue to circle endlessly amongst these six realms of existence. When the
karma, wholesome or unwholesome, that causes us to be born in any of the six realms
is exhausted, rebirth will occur, and we will find ourselves again in another
realm. In fact, it is said that all of us have circled in the these six realms
since beginningless time, that if all the skeletons that we have had in our
various lives were heaped up, the pile would exceed the height of Mount Sumeru.
If all the mothers’ milk that we have drunk throughout our countless existences
were collected, the amount would exceed the amount of water in all the oceans.
So now that we have the opportunity to practise the Dharma, we must do so
without delay.
In recent years, there has been a
tendency to interpret the six realms in psychological terms. Some teachers have
suggested that the experience of the six realms is available to us in this very
life. Undoubtedly, this is true so far as it goes. Those men and women who find
themselves in prisons, tortured, killed, and so forth are undoubtedly
experiencing a situation similar to that of the hell beings. Similarly, those
who are miserly and avaricious experience a state of mind similar to that of
the hungry ghosts. And those who are animal-like experience a state of mind
similar to that of the animals. Those who are quarrelsome, powerful and jealous
experience a state of mind similar to that of the Asuras. Those who are proud,
tranquil, serene and exalted experience a state of mind similar to that of the
gods. Yet, while it is undoubtedly true that the experience of the six realms
is to some extent available to us in this human existence, I think it would be
a mistake to assume or to believe that the six realms of existence do not have
a reality which is as real as our human experience. The hells, the realm of the
hungry ghosts, animals, demigods and gods are as real as our human realm. We
will recall that mind is the creator of all mental states. Actions done with a
pure mind motivated by generosity, love and so forth result in happy mental
states or states of existence like the human realm and the realm of the gods.
But actions done with an impure mind affected by greed, ill-will and so forth
result in unhappy lives like those of the hungry ghosts and hell beings.
Finally, I would like to distinguish rebirth
from transmigration. You may have noticed that in Buddhism, we consistently
speak of rebirth and not transmigration. This is because in Buddhism we do not
believe in an abiding entity, in a substance that trans-migrates. We do not
believe in a self that is reborn. This is why when we explain rebirth, we make
use of examples which do not require the transmigration of an essence or a
substance. For example, when a sprout is born from a seed, there is no
substance that transmigrates. The seed and the sprout are not identical.
Similarly, when we light one candle from another candle, no substance travels
from one to the other, and yet the first is the cause of the second. When one
billiard ball strikes another, there is a continuity, the energy and direction
of the first ball is imparted to the second. It is the cause of the second
billiard ball moving in a particular direction and at a particular speed. When
we step twice into a river, it is not the same river and yet there is
continuity, the continuity of cause and effect. So there is rebirth, but not
transmigration. There is moral responsibility, but not an independent,
permanent self. There is the continuity of cause and effect, but not
permanence. I want to end with this point because we will be considering the
example of the seed and the sprout, and the example of the flame in an oil lamp
next week when we discuss dependent origination. And with the help of the
teaching of dependent origination, we will understand better how dependent
origination makes moral responsibility and notself compatible.
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